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历史回眸:被遗忘的黑洞理论

   【PRFocus, David Lindley, Ian 译, 2004/05/31】如果奥本海默(J. Robert Oppenheimer)没有领导美国的核计划——曼哈顿计划的话,他可能会以黑洞(Black hole)概念的提出者而被人们记住。1939年,奥本海默与他的研究生斯奈德(Hartland Snyder)在物理学评论(Physical review)上发表文章(Phys. Rev. 56, 455), 描述了一个恒星可能会坍缩演化为一个十分致密的物体甚至光也无法它的引力束缚。这篇文章当时并没有引起大家的重视,直到1960年代,当天文学家开始认真 地考虑这种极端的物体是可能存在的。普林斯顿大学的惠勒(John Wheeler)教授给这种物体命名为黑洞,现在这一概念已经成为天体物理中的标准元素。

在1930年代,当天文学家开始猜测恒星在核燃 料燃尽后其未来是什么的时候,他们发现很难去描述这种状态。当恒星内部核反应终止,万有引力的影响将表现出来,恒星将开始收缩并使密度增大。比如象我们太 阳那么大的恒星将演化为一颗白矮星,其内核由密集的原子核和电子海(sea of electrons)组成。但更大恒星的演化又是怎样呢?

科 学家们知道,质量过大的白矮星是不稳定的,强大的引力相互作用会使它继续压缩而变得更加致密,压缩的结果是最终可能只剩下中子。在1939年的早些时候, 奥本海默与弗尔科夫(George Volkoff)证明就象白矮星一样,中子星也不能是无限致密的。他们考虑了爱因斯坦的相对论和量子力学来描述中子流体(neutron fluid)。但对中子星的核超过太阳质量70%的情形,他们没能得到稳定的解。现在天体物理学家的计算结果应当是太阳质量的两到三倍,我们把这个极限称 为奥本海默-弗尔科夫极限。总之,对于一个足够大的星核,坍缩必须继续,但这次我们将得到什么呢?

奥本海默与斯奈德在1939年回答了这 个问题。既然一个静态的解是不可能的,他们就去寻找一直随时间变化的解,即连续的收缩。必须承认,当时的理论物理学家在应用爱因斯坦的理论时还缺少经验, 并且当时没有计算机,所以他们不得不做了大量近似和假设。最终,他们获得了一个本质上正确的结果,即今天我们所说的黑洞。

对这种极端的物 质存在形态,奥本海默与斯奈德认为收缩将是不可抵挡的。同时,任何逃逸出的辐射将受到越来越强的引力红移,为了克服引力,光的波长变的越来越长。观察者将 看到坍缩中的星体将发出越来越红越来越暗的光。奥本海默的结论是:“恒星将逐渐把自己与外界的观察断绝开来;仅剩下它的引力场还存在着。”

有 意思的是,这一重要工作长期都未得到学术界的重视。奥本海默的文章还是不够严格,看起来可能存在某种特别的压力可以平衡掉引力以防止恒星收缩为黑洞。但在 1960年,惠勒及其他科学家的工作又使黑洞复活了,他们证明了无限制的收缩是不可避免的。历史上,黑洞概念对许多物理学家和天文学家是不可接受的,如著 名苏联物理学家朗道(Lev Landau)甚至建议修改量子力学以避免黑洞不会出现。奥本海默和斯奈德的工作确实是与当时的流行观念是格格不入的,但他们的理论确实是对的。

原文Landmarks: Forgotten Black Hole Birth

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